| calm (0–2 kn) | |
| 3–7 kn | |
| 8–12 kn | |
| 13–17 kn | |
| 18–22 kn | |
| 23–27 kn | |
| 28–32 kn | |
| 33–37 kn | |
| 38–42 kn | |
| 43–47 kn | |
| 48–52 kn | |
| 53–57 kn | |
| 58–62 kn | |
| 63–67 kn | |
| 98–102 kn | |
| 103–107 kn |
Wind speed, or wind velocity, is a fundamental atmospheric rate.
Wind speed affects weather forecasting, aircraft and maritime operations, construction projects, growth and metabolism rate of many plant species, and countless other implications.[1]
Wind speed is now commonly measured with an anemometer but can also be classified using the older Beaufort scale which is based on people's observation of specifically defined wind effects.
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Wind speed is affected by a number of factors and situations, operating on varying scales (from micro to macro scales). These include the pressure gradient, Rossby waves and jet streams, and local weather conditions. There are also links to be found between wind speed and wind direction, notably with the pressure gradient and surfaces over which the air is found.
Pressure gradient is a term to describe the difference in air pressure between two points in the atmosphere or on the surface of the Earth. It is vital to wind speed, because the greater the difference in pressure, the faster the wind flows (from the high to low pressure) to balance out the variation. The pressure gradient, when combined with the Coriolis Effect and friction, also influences wind direction.
Rossby waves are strong winds in the upper troposphere. These operate on a global scale and move from West to East (hence being known as Westerlies). The Rossby waves are themselves a different wind speed from what we experience in the lower troposphere.
Local weather conditions play a key role in influencing wind speed, as the formation of hurricanes, monsoons and cyclones as freak weather conditions can drastically affect the velocity of the wind.
During the passage of Tropical Cyclone Olivia on 10 April 1996, an automatic weather station on Barrow Island, Australia, registered a maximum wind gust of 408 km/h (220 kn; 253 mph).[2] The wind gust was evaluated by the WMO Evaluation Panel who found that the anemometer was mechanically sound and the gust was within statistical probability and ratified the measurement in 2010. The anemometer was mounted 10 m above ground level and so 64 m above sea level.[3] During the cyclone, several extreme gusts of greater than 300 km/h (160 kt) were recorded, with a maximum 5-minute mean speed of 176 km/h (95 kt), the extreme gust factor was in the order of 2.27–2.75 times the mean wind speed. The pattern and scales of the gusts suggests that a mesovortex was embedded in the already strong eyewall of the cyclone.[3]
The second-highest surface wind speed ever officially recorded is 372 km/h (231 mph) at the Mount Washington (New Hampshire) Observatory in the US on 12 April 1934, using a heated anemometer. The anemometer, specifically designed for use on Mount Washington, was later tested by the US National Weather Bureau and confirmed to be accurate.[4] The highest surface wind speed ever officially recorded in Asia was recorded in Afghanistan on 14 August 2008: 328 km/h (204 mph) in Ab-Paran, Ghowr.
Wind speeds within certain atmospheric phenomena (such as tornadoes) may greatly exceed these values but have never been accurately measured. The figure of (302 mph) during the F5 tornado in Bridge Creek, Oklahoma on May 3, 1999 is often quoted as the highest surface wind speed.[5]
In 1991, a chase team from the University of Oklahoma chased a tornado in Red Rock, Oklahoma and used a portable Doppler weather radar to measure a wind speed of 460 km/h (286 mph).
According to Alan F. Arbogast ("Discovering Physical Geography") wind direction and speed are affected by three main factors:
All three of these combined result in the spiral motion of air in both high and low pressure systems.
Main article: Wind Engineering
Wind speed is a common factor in the design of structures and buildings around the world. The wind speed is often the governing factor in the "lateral" design of a structure and is used by professional engineers and designers. In the United States, the wind speed used in design is often referred to as a "3-second gust" which is the highest sustained gust over a 3 second period having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50 (ASCE 7-latest edition). Windspeedbyzip [6] maps out the design wind speed as suggested by ASCE 7-05 for the United States. This design wind speed is accepted by most building codes in the United States and often times governs the lateral design of buildings and structures. In Canada, reference wind pressures are used in design and are based on the "mean hourly" wind speed having a probability of being exceeded per year of 1 in 50. The reference wind pressure (q) is calculated in Pascals using the following equation (ref: NBC 2005 Structural Commentaries - Part 4 of Div. B, Comm. I): q=(1/2)pV**2 where p is the air density in kg/m**3 and V is wind speed in m/s. Historically, wind speeds have been reported with a variety of averaging times (fastest mile, 3-second gust, 1-minute and mean hourly for example) which designers may have to take into account. To convert wind speeds from one averaging time to another, the Durst Curve (Ref: ASCE 7-05 commentary Figure C6-4) was developed which defines the relation between probable maximum wind speed averaged over t seconds, V(t), and mean wind speed over one hour V(3600).